Literature Review on Economic and Ecological Comparisons of Alternative Drivetrain Technologies in Road Freight Transport
Downloads
This literature review synthesises current academic research on alternative propulsion systems in road freight. Analysing over 150 scientific papers, it explores both economic and environmental dimensions. A structured bibliographic approach was employed, involving a three-phase selection process: evaluating the relevance of research platforms, identifying the most effective keyword combination and determining whether keyword searches in abstracts or full texts provide more pertinent results. A statistical evaluation highlights prevailing research trends and uncovers notable gaps, particularly in regional representation and vehicle type diversity, with a bias towards HDTs. Moreover, while the literature heavily emphasises electrification and hydrogen-based technologies, biofuels – despite their compatibility with existing internal combustion vehicles and their potential as a transitional fuel – remain underrepresented. Given their expected role in achieving EU climate objectives, further research is needed on the ecological, financial and operational impacts of their integration into freight networks. The review ultimately calls for more comprehensive investigations into infrastructure development and enhanced prospective analyses. Such research is critical for policymaking and for building stronger cooperation between shippers and carriers. In brief, given the transformative investments required for electric vehicle deployment, a deeper analysis of collaborative models could provide valuable strategies to accelerate the transition to zero-emission freight solutions.
Downloads
Pietrzak K, Pietrzak O. Environmental effects of electromobility in a sustainable urban public transport. Sustainability. 2020;12(3):1052. DOI: 10.3390/su12031052.
Zhang X, Lin Z, Crawford C, Li S. Techno-economic comparison of electrification for heavy-duty trucks in China by 2040. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2022;102:103152. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2021.103152.
Nkesah SK. Making road freight transport more sustainable: Insights from a systematic literature review. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 2023;22:100967. DOI: 10.1016/j.trip.2023.100967.
Ghisolfi V, et al. Freight transport decarbonization: A systematic literature review of system dynamics models. Sustainability. 2022;14:3625. DOI: 10.3390/su14063625.
Contestabile M, et al. Battery electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cells and biofuels. Which will be the winner? Energy & Environmental Science. 2011;4(10):3754-3772. DOI: 10.1039/c1ee01804c.
Sen B, Ercan T, Tatari O. Does a battery-electric truck make a difference? – Life cycle emissions, costs, and externality analysis of alternative fuel-powered Class 8 heavy-duty trucks in the United States. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;141:110–121. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.046.
Lajevardi SM, Axsen J, Crawford C. Comparing alternative heavy-duty drivetrains based on GHG emissions, ownership and abatement costs: Simulations of freight routes in British Columbia. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2019;76:19–55. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2019.08.031.
Lao J, et al. Reducing atmospheric pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions of heavy duty trucks by substituting diesel with hydrogen in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei-Shandong region, China. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021;46(34):18137–18152. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.09.132.
Pihlatie M, Ranta M, Rahkola P, Åman R. Zero-emission truck powertrains for regional and long-haul missions. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2023;14(9):253. DOI: 10.3390/wevj14090253.
Haugen MJ, et al. A fork in the road: Which energy pathway offers the greatest energy efficiency and CO2 reduction potential for low-carbon vehicles? Applied Energy. 2021;283:116295. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116295.
Zhao Y, Tatari O. A hybrid life cycle assessment of the vehicle-to-grid application in light duty commercial fleet. Energy. 2015;93:1277–1286. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2015.10.019.
Teichert O, et al. Techno-economic cell selection for battery-electric long-haul trucks. eTransportation. 2023;16:100225. DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2022.100225.
Liu X, Elgowainy A, Vijayagopal R, Wang M. Well-to-wheels analysis of zero-emission plug-in battery electric vehicle technology for medium- and heavy-duty trucks. Environmental Science & Technology. 2020;55(1):538–546. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02931.
Castillo O, Álvarez R. Electrification of last-mile delivery: A fleet management approach with a sustainability perspective. Sustainability. 2023;15(24):16909. DOI: 10.3390/su152416909.
De la Peña AG, et al. Projecting adoption of truck powertrain technologies and CO2 emissions in line-haul networks. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2020;84:102354. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2020.102354.
Romejko K, Nakano M. Portfolio analysis of alternative fuel vehicles considering technological advancement, energy security and policy. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;142:39–49. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.029.
Sen B, Ercan T, Tatari O, Zheng QP. Robust pareto optimal approach to sustainable heavy-duty truck fleet composition. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2019;146:502–513. DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.03.042.
Wang S, et al. A data-driven multi-objective optimization framework for determining the suitability of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in freight transport. Applied Energy. 2023;347:121452. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121452.
Meyer M, Bousonville T. Alternative fuels in road freight transport: Objectives and scope of a literature review. Technical reports on Logistics (Working Paper No. 24). Saarland University of Applied Sciences, Business School. 2025.
IEA. Global EV Outlook 2023 – Catching up with climate ambitions. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023.
Takman J, Andersson-Sköld Y. A framework for barriers, opportunities, and potential solutions for renewable energy diffusion: Exemplified by liquefied biogas for heavy trucks. Transport Policy. 2021;110:150–160. DOI: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.05.021.
IEA. Global EV Outlook 2024 – Moving towards increased affordability. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024.
European Union. Regulation (EU) 2023/1804 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 September 2023 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure. L 234, 22.9.2023, 1-56. Official Journal of the European Union; 2023.
Liu N, Xie F, Lin Z, Jin M. Evaluating national hydrogen refueling infrastructure requirement and economic competitiveness of fuel cell electric long-haul trucks. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 2020;25(3):477–493. DOI: 10.1007/s11027-019-09896-z.
Speth D, Plötz P, Wietschel M. An optimal capacity-constrained fast charging network for battery electric trucks in Germany. Transportation Research Part A. 2025;193:104383. DOI: 10.1016/j.tra.2025.104383.
Collett KA, et al. Can electric vehicles be good for Sub-Saharan Africa? Energy Strategy Reviews. 2021;38:100722. DOI: 10.1016/j.esr.2021.100722.
Gicha BB, Tufa LT, Lee J. The electric vehicle revolution in Sub-Saharan Africa: Trends, challenges, and opportunities. Energy Strategy Reviews. 2024;53:101384. DOI: 10.1016/j.esr.2024.101384.
Chiaramonti D, Talluri G, Scarlat N, Prussi M. The challenge of forecasting the role of biofuel in EU transport decarbonisation at 2050: A meta-analysis review of published scenarios. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2021;139:110715. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.110715.
Tanco M, Cat L, Garat S. A break-even analysis for battery electric trucks in Latin America. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019;228:1354–1367. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.168.
Rout C, Li H, Dupont V, Wadud Z. A comparative total cost of ownership analysis of heavy duty on-road and off-road vehicles powered by hydrogen, electricity, and diesel. Heliyon. 2022;8(12):e12417. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12417.
Atkins P, Milton G, Atkins A, Morgan R. A local ecosystem assessment of the potential for net negative heavy-duty truck greenhouse gas emissions through biomethane upcycling. Energies. 2021;14(4):806. DOI: 10.3390/en14040806.
Pérez J, Lumbreras J, Rodríguez E, Vedrenne M. A methodology for estimating the carbon footprint of waste collection vehicles under different scenarios: Application to Madrid. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2017;52:156–171. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.03.007.
Osorio-Tejada JL, Llera-Sastresa E, Scarpellini S. A multi-criteria sustainability assessment for biodiesel and liquefied natural gas as alternative fuels in transport systems. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering. 2017;42:169–186. DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2017.02.046.
Wang Z, et al. A total cost of ownership analysis of zero emission powertrain solutions for the heavy goods vehicle sector. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2024;434:139910. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139910.
Charalambous MA, et al. Absolute environmental sustainability assessment of renewable dimethyl ether fuelled heavy-duty trucks. Sustainable Energy & Fuels. 2023;7(8):1930–1941. DOI: 10.1039/d2se01409b.
Nouni MR, et al. Alternative fuels for decarbonisation of road transport sector in India: Options, present status, opportunities, and challenges. Fuel. 2021;305:121583. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121583.
Keogh N, Corr D, Monaghan RFD. An environmental and economic assessment for biomethane injection and natural gas heavy goods vehicles. Applied Energy. 2024;360:122800. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122800.
Noll B, del Val S, Schmidt T, Steffen B. Analyzing the competitiveness of low-carbon drive-technologies in road-freight: A total cost of ownership analysis in Europe. Applied Energy. 2022;306:118079. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118079.
Ma X, Wang Q, Xiong S, Yuan Y. Application of fuel cell and alternative fuel for the decarbonization of China’s road freight sector towards carbon neutral. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2024;49:263–275. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.08.067.
Moll C, Plötz P, Hadwich K, Wietschel M. Are Battery-Electric trucks for 24-Hour delivery the future of City Logistics? – A German case study. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2020;11(1):16. DOI: 10.3390/wevj11010016.
Wu X, et al. Assessing climate/air quality synergies and cost-effectiveness for Beijing transportation: Insights into sustainable development. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2024;104:105296. DOI: 10.1016/j.scs.2024.105296.
Taefi TT, Stütz S, Fink A. Assessing the cost-optimal mileage of medium-duty electric vehicles with a numeric simulation approach. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2017;56:271–285. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.08.015.
Li J, et al. Assessing the decarbonization potential of China’s light-duty truck fleet by electrification. Energy Reports. 2023;9:212–225. DOI: 10.1016/j.egyr.2023.03.018.
Gray N, et al. Batteries, fuel cells, or engines? A probabilistic economic and environmental assessment of electricity and electrofuels for heavy goods vehicles. Advances in Applied Energy. 2022;8:100110. DOI: 10.1016/j.adapen.2022.100110.
Mareev I, Becker J, Sauer D. Battery dimensioning and life cycle costs analysis for a heavy-duty truck considering the requirements of long-haul transportation. Energies. 2017;11(1):55. DOI: 10.3390/en11010055.
Bidart C, Wichert M, Kolb G, Held M. Biogas catalytic methanation for biomethane production as fuel in freight transport - A carbon footprint assessment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2022;168:112802. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112802.
Baral NR, et al. Biomass feedstock transport using fuel cell and battery electric trucks improves lifecycle metrics of biofuel sustainability and economy. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2021;279:123593. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123593.
Gialos A, Zeimpekis V, Madas M, Papageorgiou K. Calculation and assessment of CO2e emissions in road freight transportation: a Greek case study. Sustainability. 2022;14(17):10724. DOI: 10.3390/su141710724.
Zhao Y, Onat NC, Kucukvar M, Tatari O. Carbon and energy footprints of electric delivery trucks: A hybrid multi-regional input-output life cycle assessment. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2016;47:195–207. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2016.05.014.
Zhao Y, Tatari O. Carbon and energy footprints of refuse collection trucks: A hybrid life cycle evaluation. Sustainable Production and Consumption. 2017;12:180–192. DOI: 10.1016/j.spc.2017.07.005.
Shafiei E, et al. Comparative analysis of hydrogen, biofuels and electricity transitional pathways to sustainable transport in a renewable-based energy system. Energy. 2015;83:614–627. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2015.02.071.
Rajagopal D, et al. Comparative evaluation of total cost of ownership of battery-electric and diesel trucks in India. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. 2023;2678(6):235–247. DOI: 10.1177/03611981231195055.
Syré AM, et al. Comparative life cycle assessment of battery and fuel cell electric cars, trucks, and buses. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2024;15(3):114. DOI: 10.3390/wevj15030114.
Balboa-Espinoza V, Segura-Salazar J, Hunt C, Aitken D. Comparative life cycle assessment of battery-electric and diesel underground mining trucks. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2023;425:139056. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139056.
Booto GK, Espegren KA, Hancke R. Comparative life cycle assessment of heavy-duty drivetrains: A Norwegian study case. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2021;95:102836. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2021.102836.
Feng Y, Dong Z. Comparative lifecycle costs and emissions of electrified powertrains for light-duty logistics trucks. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2023;117:103672. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2023.103672.
Speth D, Funke SÁ. Comparing options to electrify heavy-duty vehicles: Findings of German pilot projects. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2021;12(2):67. DOI: 10.3390/wevj12020067.
Hoshing V, et al. Comparison of economic viability of series and parallel PHEVs for medium-duty truck and transit bus applications. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering. 2020;234(10–11):2458–2472. DOI: 10.1177/0954407020919255.
Tong F, Jaramillo P, Azevedo IML. Comparison of life cycle greenhouse gases from natural gas pathways for medium and heavy-duty vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology. 2015;49(12):7123–7133. DOI: 10.1021/es5052759.
Middela MS, et al. Complete LCA of battery electric and conventional fuel vehicles for freight trips. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2022;110:103398. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2022.103398.
Huertas JI, Mogro AE, Jiménez JP. Configuration of electric vehicles for specific applications from a holistic perspective. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2022;13(2):29. DOI: 10.3390/wevj13020029.
Gerbens-Leenes W, Holtz K. Consequences of transport low-carbon transitions and the carbon, land and water footprints of different fuel options in the Netherlands. Water. 2020;12(7):1968. DOI: 10.3390/w12071968.
Soam S, Börjesson P. Considerations on potentials, greenhouse gas, and energy performance of biofuels based on forest residues for heavy-duty road transport in Sweden. Energies. 2020;13(24):6701. DOI: 10.3390/en13246701.
Ping L, et al. Cost–benefit analysis of synergistic CO2 and NOX energy-efficient technologies for the road transport sector in China. Atmosphere. 2022;13(10):1540. DOI: 10.3390/atmos13101540.
Mauler L, et al. Cost-effective technology choice in a decarbonized and diversified long-haul truck transportation sector: A U.S. case study. Journal of Energy Storage. 2022;46:103891. DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2021.103891.
Carlsson F, Johansson-Stenman O. Costs and benefits of electric vehicles – A 2010 perspective. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy. 2003;37(1):1-28.
Liu F, Mauzerall DL, Zhao F, Hao H. Deployment of fuel cell vehicles in China: Greenhouse gas emission reductions from converting the heavy-duty truck fleet from diesel and natural gas to hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021;46(34):17982–17997. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.02.198.
Vora AP, et al. Design-space exploration of series plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for medium-duty truck applications in a total cost-of-ownership framework. Applied Energy. 2017;202:662–672. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.05.090.
Rouhi K, Motlagh MS, Dalir F. Developing a carbon footprint model and environmental impact analysis of municipal solid waste transportation: A case study of Tehran, Iran. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 2023;73(12):890–901. DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2023.2271424.
Haider M, Davis M, Kumar A. Development of a framework to assess the greenhouse gas mitigation potential from the adoption of low-carbon road vehicles in a hydrocarbon-rich region. Applied Energy. 2024;358:122335. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122335.
Sacchi R, Bauer C, Cox BL. Does size matter? The influence of size, load factor, range autonomy, and application type on the life cycle assessment of current and future medium- and heavy-duty vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology. 2021;55(8):5224–5235. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07773.
Ravigné E, Da Costa P. Economic and environmental performances of natural gas for heavy trucks: A case study on the French automotive industry supply chain. Energy Policy. 2021;149:112019. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112019.
Li Y, Kimura S. Economic competitiveness and environmental implications of hydrogen energy and fuel cell electric vehicles in ASEAN countries: The current and future scenarios. Energy Policy. 2021;148:111980. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111980.
Soares L, Wang H. Economic feasibility analysis of charging infrastructure for electric ground fleet in airports. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. 2021;2675(12):1–12. DOI: 10.1177/03611981211033859.
Trinko D, et al. Economic feasibility of in-motion wireless power transfer in a high-density traffic corridor. eTransportation. 2022;11:100154. DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2021.100154.
Limb BJ, et al. Economic viability and environmental impact of in-motion wireless power transfer. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification. 2018;5(1):135–146. DOI: 10.1109/tte.2018.2876067.
Levkovych O, Saraceni A. Efficiency in the last mile of autonomous ground vehicles with lockers: From conventional to renewable energy transport. Sustainability. 2023;15(23):16219. DOI: 10.3390/su152316219.
Scorrano M, Danielis R, Giansoldati M. Electric light commercial vehicles for a cleaner urban goods distribution. Are they cost competitive? Research in Transportation Economics. 2021;85:101022. DOI: 10.1016/j.retrec.2020.101022.
Schulte J, Ny H. Electric road systems: Strategic stepping stone on the way towards sustainable freight transport? Sustainability. 2018;10(4):1148. DOI: 10.3390/su10041148.
Vijayagopal R, Rousseau A. Electric truck economic feasibility analysis. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2021;12(2):75. DOI: 10.3390/wevj12020075.
Lee DY, Thomas VM, Brown MA. Electric urban delivery trucks: Energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and cost-effectiveness. Environmental Science & Technology. 2013;47(14):8022–8030. DOI: 10.1021/es400179w.
Schmid F, Taube L, Rieck J, Behrendt F. Electrification of waste collection vehicles: Technoeconomic analysis based on an energy demand simulation using real-life operational data. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification. 2021;7(2):604–615. DOI: 10.1109/tte.2020.3031072.
Wolfram P, Wiedmann T. Electrifying Australian transport: Hybrid life cycle analysis of a transition to electric light-duty vehicles and renewable electricity. Applied Energy. 2017;206:531–540. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.219.
Özlü L, Çelebi D. Electrifying freight: Modeling the decision-making process for battery electric truck procurement. Sustainability. 2024;16(9):3801. DOI: 10.3390/su16093801.
Lebeau P, Macharis C, Van Mierlo J, Lebeau K. Electrifying light commercial vehicles for city logistics? A total cost of ownership analysis. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research. 2015;15(4). DOI: 10.18757/ejtir.2015.15.4.3097.
Lal A, et al. Electrifying light commercial vehicles for last-mile deliveries: Environmental and economic perspectives. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2023;416:137933. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137933.
Lyu Z, Pons D, Zhang Y. Emissions and total cost of ownership for diesel and battery electric freight pickup and delivery trucks in New Zealand: Implications for transition. Sustainability. 2023;15(10):7902. DOI: 10.3390/su15107902.
Song H, et al. Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of diesel/LNG heavy-duty vehicle fleets in China based on a bottom-up model analysis. Energy. 2017;140:966–978. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.09.011.
Mareev I, Sauer D. Energy consumption and life cycle costs of overhead catenary heavy-duty trucks for long-haul transportation. Energies. 2018;11(12):3446. DOI: 10.3390/en11123446.
Sun D, Zheng Y, Duan R. Energy consumption simulation and economic benefit analysis for urban electric commercial-vehicles. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2021;101:103083. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2021.103083.
Qiu Y, Dobbelaere C, Song S. Energy cost analysis and operational range prediction based on medium- and heavy-duty electric vehicle real-world deployments across the United States. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2023;14(12):330. DOI: 10.3390/wevj14120330.
Serrano-Guevara OS, Huertas JI, Quirama LF, Mogro EA. Energy efficiency of heavy-duty vehicles in Mexico. Energies. 2022;16(1):459. DOI: 10.3390/en16010459.
Oke D, et al. Energy, economic, and environmental impacts assessment of co-optimized on-road heavy-duty engines and bio-blendstocks. Sustainable Energy & Fuels. 2023;7(18):4580–4601. DOI: 10.1039/d3se00381g.
Langshaw L, et al. Environmental and economic analysis of liquefied natural gas (LNG) for heavy goods vehicles in the UK: A well-to-wheel and total cost of ownership evaluation. Energy Policy. 2020;137:111161. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111161.
Giordano A, Fischbeck P, Matthews HS. Environmental and economic comparison of diesel and battery electric delivery vans to inform city logistics fleet replacement strategies. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2018;64:216–229. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.10.003.
González-García S, García-Rey D, Hospido A. Environmental life cycle assessment for rapeseed-derived biodiesel. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 2012;18(1):61–76. DOI: 10.1007/s11367-012-0444-5.
Rial M, Pérez J. Environmental performance of four different heavy-duty propulsion technologies using life cycle assessment. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 2021;11:100428. DOI: 10.1016/j.trip.2021.100428.
Xu F, et al. Environment-economic analysis of diesel, hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric trucks in China. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2023;117:103661. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2023.103661.
Mu Z, et al. Evaluating fuel cell vs. battery electric trucks: Economic perspectives in alignment with China’s carbon neutrality target. Sustainability. 2024;16(6):2427. DOI: 10.3390/su16062427.
Hao X, et al. Evaluating the current perceived cost of ownership for buses and trucks in China. Energy. 2022;254:124383. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2022.124383.
Richter S, Braun-Unkhoff M, Hasselwander S, Haas S. Evaluation of the applicability of synthetic fuels and their life cycle analyses. Energies. 2024;17(5):981. DOI: 10.3390/en17050981.
Hovi IB, Pinchasik DR, Figenbaum E, Thorne RJ. Experiences from battery-electric truck users in Norway. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2019;11(1):5. DOI: 10.3390/wevj11010005.
Yaïci W, Ribberink H. Feasibility study of medium- and heavy-duty compressed renewable/natural gas vehicles in Canada. Journal of Energy Resources Technology. 2020;143(9):090902. DOI: 10.1115/1.4049455.
Meinrenken CJ, Lackner KS. Fleet view of electrified transportation reveals smaller potential to reduce GHG emissions. Applied Energy. 2015;138:393–403. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.10.082.
Anselma PG, Belingardi G. Fuel cell electrified propulsion systems for long-haul heavy-duty trucks: present and future cost-oriented sizing. Applied Energy. 2022;321:119354. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119354.
Sengupta S, Cohan DS. Fuel cycle emissions and life cycle costs of alternative fuel vehicle policy options for the city of Houston municipal fleet. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2017;54:160–171. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.04.039.
Samet MJ, Liimatainen H, Van Vliet OPR. GHG emission reduction potential of road freight transport by using battery electric trucks in Finland and Switzerland. Applied Energy. 2023;347:121361. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121361.
Smit R, et al. Greenhouse gas emissions performance of electric, hydrogen and fossil-fuelled freight trucks with uncertainty estimates using a probabilistic life-cycle assessment (pLCA). Sustainability. 2024;16(2):762. DOI: 10.3390/su16020762.
Shamsi H, et al. Health cost estimation of traffic-related air pollution and assessing the pollution reduction potential of zero-emission vehicles in Toronto, Canada. Energies. 2021;14(16):4956. DOI: 10.3390/en14164956.
Allwright J, Rahman A, Coleman M, Kulkarni A. Heavy multi-articulated vehicles with electric and hybrid power trains for road freight activity: An Australian context. Energies. 2022;15(17):6237. DOI: 10.3390/en15176237.
Antonini C, et al. Hydrogen from wood gasification with CCS – A techno-environmental analysis of production and use as transport fuel. Sustainable Energy & Fuels. 2021;5(10):2602–2621. DOI: 10.1039/d0se01637c.
Yan J, Jing J, Li Y. Hydrogen fuel cell commercial vehicles in China: Evaluation of carbon emission reduction and its economic value. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2024;52:734–749. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.04.164.
Wanniarachchi S, et al. Hydrogen fuel supply chains for vehicular emissions mitigation: A feasibility assessment for North American freight transport sector. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation. 2022;17(8):855–869. DOI: 10.1080/15568318.2022.2116739.
Jones J, Genovese A, Tob-Ogu A. Hydrogen vehicles in urban logistics: A total cost of ownership analysis and some policy implications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2020;119:109595. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109595.
Jiang Z, Yan R, Gong Z, Guan G. Impact assessment of crude oil mix, electricity generation mix, and vehicle technology on road freight emission reduction in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022;30(10):27763–27781. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24150-x.
Dos Reis JCG. Implementing electric vehicles in public services: A case study research. International Journal of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. 2019;11(3):205. DOI: 10.1504/ijehv.2019.101297.
Esteban B, et al. Is it environmentally advantageous to use vegetable oil directly as biofuel instead of converting it to biodiesel? Biomass and Bioenergy. 2011;35(3):1317–1328. DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.12.025.
Samet MJ, Liimatainen H, Pihlatie M, Van Vliet OPR. Levelized cost of driving for medium and heavy-duty battery electric trucks. Applied Energy. 2024;361:122976. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122976.
Sun S, Ertz M. Life cycle assessment and Monte Carlo simulation to evaluate the environmental impact of promoting LNG vehicles. MethodsX. 2020;7:101046. DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2020.101046.
Hanesch S, Schöpp F, Göllner-Völker L, Schebek L. Life cycle assessment of an emerging overhead line hybrid truck in short-haul pilot operation. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2022;338:130600. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130600.
Yang L, Hao C, Chai Y. Life cycle assessment of commercial delivery trucks: Diesel, plug-in electric, and battery-swap electric. Sustainability. 2018;10(12):4547. DOI: 10.3390/su10124547.
Drawer C, Rödl A, Kaltschmitt M. Life cycle assessment of construction and driving operation of a hydrogen-powered truck built from a used diesel truck. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 2024;24:101020. DOI: 10.1016/j.trip.2024.101020.
El Hannach M, et al. Life cycle assessment of hydrogen and diesel dual-fuel class 8 heavy duty trucks. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2019;44(16):8575–8584. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.02.027.
Arvidsson R, Persson S, Fröling M, Svanström M. Life cycle assessment of hydrotreated vegetable oil from rape, oil palm and Jatropha. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2011;19(2–3):129–137. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.02.008.
Yu R, et al. Life cycle CO2 emissions for the new energy vehicles in China drawing on the reshaped survival patter. The Science of the Total Environment. 2022;826:154102. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154102.
Shahraeeni M, et al. Life cycle emissions and cost of transportation systems: Case study on diesel and natural gas for light duty trucks in municipal fleet operations. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering. 2015;24:26–34. DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2015.03.009.
Cooper J, Hawkes A, Balcombe P. Life cycle environmental impacts of natural gas drivetrains used in UK road freighting and impacts to UK emission targets. The Science of the Total Environment. 2019;674: 482–493. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.091.
Zhou T, Roorda M, MacLean H, Luk JM. Life cycle GHG emissions and lifetime costs of medium-duty diesel and battery electric trucks in Toronto, Canada. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2017;55: 91–98. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2017.06.019.
Yeow LW, Yan Y, Cheah L. Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of alternative fuels and powertrains for medium-duty trucks: A Singapore case study. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2022;105:103258. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2022.103258.
Yuan Z, Ou X, Peng T, Yan X. Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of multi-pathways natural gas vehicles in China considering methane leakage. Applied Energy. 2019;253:113472. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113472.
Lave L, MacLean H, Hendrickson C, Lankey R. Life-cycle analysis of alternative automobile fuel/propulsion technologies. Environmental Science & Technology. 2000;34(17):3598–3605. DOI: 10.1021/es991322.
Bachmann C, Chingcuanco F, MacLean HL, Roorda MJ. Life-cycle assessment of diesel-electric hybrid and conventional diesel trucks for deliveries. Journal of Transportation Engineering. 2015;141(4). DOI: 10.1061/(asce)te.1943-5436.0000761.
Wang K, et al. Life-cycle CO2 mitigation of China’s class-8 heavy-duty trucks requires hybrid strategies. One Earth. 2022;5(6):709–723. DOI: 10.1016/j.oneear.2022.05.013.
Arteconi A, Brandoni C, Evangelista D, Polonara F. Life-cycle greenhouse gas analysis of LNG as a heavy vehicle fuel in Europe. Applied Energy. 2010;87(6):2005–2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.11.012.
He X, et al. Life-cycle greenhouse gas emission benefits of natural gas vehicles. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2021;9(23):7813–7823. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c01324.
Lee D-Y, et al. Life-cycle implications of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle technology for medium- and heavy-duty trucks. Journal of Power Sources. 2018;393:217–229. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.012.
Qasim M, Csiszar C. Major barriers in adoption of electric trucks in logistics system. PROMET - Traffic&Transportation. 2021;33(6):833–846. DOI: 10.7307/ptt.v33i6.3922.
Cabrera-Jiménez R, et al. Microalgae biofuel for a heavy-duty transport sector within planetary boundaries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2023;11(25):9359–9371. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c00750.
Casolari BL, et al. Model study of a fuel cell range extender for a neighborhood electric vehicle (NEV). International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2014;39(20):10757–10787. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.05.001.
Vojtíšek-Lom M, et al. On-road and laboratory emissions of NO, NO2, NH3, N2O and CH4 from late-model EU light utility vehicles: Comparison of diesel and CNG. The Science of the Total Environment. 2018;616–617:774–784. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.248.
Ghandriz T, Jacobson B, Laine L, Hellgren J. Optimization data on total cost of ownership for conventional and battery electric heavy vehicles driven by humans and by automated driving systems. Data in Brief. 2020;30:105566. DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2020.105566.
Lee D-Y, Thomas VM. Parametric modeling approach for economic and environmental life cycle assessment of medium-duty truck electrification. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;142:3300–3321. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.139.
Ahluwalia R, Wang X, Papadias D, Star G. Performance and total cost of ownership of a fuel cell hybrid mining truck. Energies. 2022;16(1):286. DOI: 10.3390/en16010286.
Huo H, et al. Projection of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions by motor vehicles in China: Policy options and impacts. Energy Policy. 2012;43:37–48. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.09.065.
Zhao J. Projections of the costs of medium- and heavy-duty battery-electric and fuel cell vehicles (2020-2040) and related economic issues. Energy for Sustainable Development. 2023;77:101343. DOI: 10.1016/j.esd.2023.101343.
Van Den Oever AEM, Costa D, Messagie M. Prospective life cycle assessment of alternatively fueled heavy-duty trucks. Applied Energy. 2023;336:120834. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.120834.
Navas-Anguita Z, García-Gusano D, Dufour J, Iribarren D. Prospective techno-economic and environmental assessment of a national hydrogen production mix for road transport. Applied Energy. 2020;259:114121. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114121.
Üçok MD. Prospects for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to decarbonize road transport. Discover Sustainability. 2023;4(42). DOI: 10.1007/s43621-023-00159-1.
Sripad S, Viswanathan V. Quantifying the economic case for electric semi-trucks. ACS Energy Letters. 2018;4(1):149–155. DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b02146.
Shen X, et al. Real-world exhaust emissions and fuel consumption for diesel vehicles fueled by waste cooking oil biodiesel blends. Atmospheric Environment. 2018;191:249–257. DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.08.004.
Martin J, Neumann A, Ødegård A. Renewable hydrogen and synthetic fuels versus fossil fuels for trucking, shipping and aviation: A holistic cost model. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2023;186:113637. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113637.
Lao J, Song H, Wang C, Zhou Y. Research on atmospheric pollutant and greenhouse gas emission reductions of trucks by substituting fuel oil with green hydrogen: A case study. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2023;48(30):11555–11566. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.02.230.
Brynolf S, et al. Review of electrofuel feasibility – Prospects for road, ocean, and air transport. Progress in Energy. 2022;4(4):042007. DOI: 10.1088/2516-1083/ac8097.
Guo Y, Kelly JA, Clinch JP. Road transport electrification – Is timing everything? Implications of emissions analysis’ outcomes for climate and air policy. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 2021;12:100478. DOI: 10.1016/j.trip.2021.100478.
Ou X, Zhang X, Chang S. Scenario analysis on alternative fuel/vehicle for China’s future road transport: Life-cycle energy demand and GHG emissions. Energy Policy. 2010;38(8):3943–3956. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2010.03.018.
Ramshankar AT, Desai AG, De La Villarmois JA, Bozeman J. Sustainability analysis of overhead cable line powered freight trucks: A life cycle impact and techno-economic assessment toward transport electrification. Environmental Research: Infrastructure and Sustainability. 2023;3(1):015010. DOI: 10.1088/2634-4505/acc273.
Liu J, et al. Synergistic air pollutants and GHG reduction effect of commercial vehicle electrification in Guangdong’s public service sector. Sustainability. 2021;13(19):11098. DOI: 10.3390/su131911098.
Alonso-Villar A, et al. Technical, economic, and environmental feasibility of alternative fuel heavy-duty vehicles in Iceland. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2022;369:133249. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133249.
Gunawan TA, Monaghan RFD. Techno-econo-environmental comparisons of zero- and low-emission heavy-duty trucks. Applied Energy. 2022;308:118327. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118327.
Wang B, et al. Technological-economic assessment and optimization of hydrogen-based transportation systems in China: A life cycle perspective. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2023;48(33):12155–12167. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.12.189.
Ma Y, Ke R-Y, Han R, Tang B-J. The analysis of the battery electric vehicle’s potentiality of environmental effect: A case study of Beijing from 2016 to 2020. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;145:395–406. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.131.
Li Y, Taghizadeh-Hesary F. The economic feasibility of green hydrogen and fuel cell electric vehicles for road transport in China. Energy Policy. 2022;160:112703. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112703.
Liu F, Zhao F, Liu Z, Hao H. The impact of fuel cell vehicle deployment on road transport greenhouse gas emissions: The China case. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2018;43(50):22604–22621. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.10.088.
Brand C, Tran M, Anable J. The UK transport carbon model: An integrated life cycle approach to explore low carbon futures. Energy Policy. 2012;41:107–124. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2010.08.019.
He L-Y, Chen Y. Thou shalt drive electric and hybrid vehicles: Scenario analysis on energy saving and emission mitigation for road transportation sector in China. Transport Policy. 2013;25:30–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2012.11.006.
Zhao Y, Noori M, Tatari O. Vehicle to grid regulation services of electric delivery trucks: Economic and environmental benefit analysis. Applied Energy. 2016;170:161–175. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.02.097.
Iyer RK, Kelly JC, Elgowainy A. Vehicle-cycle and life-cycle analysis of medium-duty and heavy-duty trucks in the United States. The Science of the Total Environment. 2023;891:164093. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164093.
Taefi TT. Viability of electric vehicles in combined day and night delivery: A total cost of ownership example in Germany. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research. 2016;16(4):3160. DOI: 10.18757/ejtir.2016.16.4.3160.
Zhang F, et al. Well-to-wheel analysis of natural gas fuel for hybrid truck applications. Energy Conversion and Management. 2021;240:114271. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114271.
Gustafsson M, et al. Well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of heavy-duty transports: Influence of electricity carbon intensity. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2021;93:102757. DOI: 10.1016/j.trd.2021.102757.
Jaller M, Pineda L, Ambrose H, Kendall A. Empirical analysis of the role of incentives in zero-emission last-mile deliveries in California. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2021;317:128353. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128353.
Copyright (c) 2026 Maeva MEYER, Thomas BOUSONVILLE
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
